There are really **two different historical questions** here:
1. When did Christians begin opposing capital punishment despite Romans 13:4?
2. When did interpreters begin arguing that **Romans 13:4 itself does not refer specifically to capital punishment**?
Those have very different answers.
### Opposition is ancient; exegetical separation is comparatively modern
Already in the **second and third centuries**, some Christians were strongly opposed to Christians killing or participating in executions. Tertullian and Origen restricted Christian participation in lethal state functions, while Lactantius went particularly far, treating the prohibition of killing as exceptionally comprehensive. So Christian resistance to execution certainly isn't a modern invention. [USCCB](
https://www.usccb.org/committees/pro-li ... hatgpt.com)
But that did **not necessarily involve reinterpreting Romans 13:4**. One could say:
> Paul acknowledges that the pagan state bears the sword, but Christians themselves must not wield it.
Indeed, Tertullian could quote Romans 13:4 as describing the world's judicial system while maintaining a much more restrictive ethic for Christians. [Historical Christian Faith](
https://historicalchristian.faith/roman ... hatgpt.com)
After Christianity became intertwined with imperial government, the dominant Western interpretation became much more straightforward. **Augustine explicitly appealed to Romans 13:2–4 in defending the state's authority to inflict death**, although he repeatedly advocated clemency. [JAPA Journal](
https://jaapl.org/content/36/4/470?utm_ ... hatgpt.com) Aquinas subsequently incorporated the legitimacy of execution by public authority into a systematic Christian account of punishment. By the medieval period, the state's authority to execute was widely accepted. [USCCB](
https://www.usccb.org/committees/pro-li ... hatgpt.com)
The same basic reading survived the Reformation and well into modern Protestant commentary. Calvin reads the magistrate's sword as including lethal punishment. And strikingly, **nineteenth-century commentators were still quite explicit**. Charles Ellicott says Romans 13:4 makes it clear that capital punishment is scripturally sanctioned, even while adding that Scripture does not therefore rule out its abolition. [BibliaPlus](
https://www.bibliaplus.org/en/commentar ... hatgpt.com) The *Cambridge Bible* likewise calls the verse a “distinct sanction” of capital punishment. [Bible Hub](
https://www.biblehub.com/commentaries/r ... hatgpt.com)
So there was no general exegetical shift in the Enlightenment in which scholars suddenly decided that *machaira* simply meant “governmental authority.”
### The important shift comes mainly in the twentieth century
This is where **Karl Barth** becomes significant, though with an important qualification. Barth's mature opposition to the ordinary institution of capital punishment is part of a broader twentieth-century theological reconsideration. But Barth's argument isn't primarily the narrow lexical claim that *machaira* in Romans 13:4 cannot have execution in view. His theological argument against capital punishment is considerably broader and Christological.
An even clearer turning point is the **Anabaptist/peace-church retrieval culminating in John Howard Yoder**. In *The Politics of Jesus* (1972), Yoder directly attacks the traditional inference from Romans 13:4. His argument is quite specific: the “sword” is an emblem of judicial authority; it should not automatically be identified with execution. He even points out that crucifixion, rather than the sword, was a characteristic Roman means of executing criminals in Paul's setting. [Stephen Barkley](
https://stephenbarkley.com/2012/04/11/t ... hatgpt.com)
Yoder also made something else exegetically important: he reconnected Romans 13 with **Romans 12**. The chapter division can obscure Paul's sequence:
**Romans 12:19:**
“Do not avenge yourselves … ‘Vengeance is mine; I will repay,’ says the Lord.”
↓
**Romans 13:4:**
the ruler is God's servant, an **avenger** (*ekdikos*) for wrath against wrongdoing.
↓
**Romans 13:8–10:**
“Love does no wrong to a neighbour.”
For Yoder, therefore, Paul is not telling Christians that they may now kill because they hold government office. He is telling Christians **not to avenge themselves**, while acknowledging that God providentially uses political authorities to restrain wrongdoing. That became quite influential in later theological readings. [Stephen Barkley](
https://stephenbarkley.com/2012/04/11/t ... hatgpt.com)
### But contemporary exegetes still divide on the narrower question
This is important because opposition to capital punishment and interpretation of *machaira* shouldn't be collapsed into one question.
Some modern exegetes still think the historical meaning probably **includes the power of execution**. For example, C. K. Barrett connected the expression with the *ius gladii*, the magistrate's authority to impose a death sentence. [new.bible.org](
https://new.bible.org/article/paul-and- ... hatgpt.com) This is broadly the line that Stott follows.
Others now argue that the evidence doesn't justify making the expression that specific. A recent treatment in the *Journal of Law and Religion*, for example, argues that the sword is more plausibly a symbol of the government's coercive/judicial authority and notes historical problems with identifying it straightforwardly with a universal Roman *ius gladii*. [Cambridge University Press](
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals ... hatgpt.com)
So I'd sketch the history like this:
| Period | Typical treatment of Romans 13:4 |
|---|---|
| **2nd–3rd c.** | State possesses punitive power; some Christians nevertheless reject Christian participation in killing |
| **Augustine onward** | Increasingly clear acceptance of state execution as compatible with Romans 13 |
| **Medieval period** | Aquinas and mainstream theology accept legitimate capital punishment |
| **Reformation–19th c.** | Romans 13:4 commonly cited explicitly as authorization for capital punishment |
| **early/mid-20th c.** | Major theological reconsideration of capital punishment; Barth especially important |
| **1970s onward** | Yoder and others directly challenge reading “sword” = authorization to execute |
| **contemporary scholarship** | Divided: *machaira* clearly signifies coercive penal authority; whether it specifically denotes capital punishment is disputed |
There is therefore a slightly surprising conclusion: **the ancient Christian objection to killing is older than the standard Augustinian defense of capital punishment, but the specific exegetical move “Romans 13:4 isn't actually talking about capital punishment” is largely a modern development.**
And this makes **Stott particularly interesting historically**. Writing late in the twentieth century, he accepts the older lexical interpretation—*machaira* includes the state's authority to execute—while nevertheless moving toward considerable practical restraint. Yoder takes the more radical exegetical route and challenges the identification of the sword with execution itself